Animals Behind Today’s Most Vital Medical Devices
From pacemakers to insulin pumps, animal research plays a critical role in developing lifesaving medical technologies that improve human health every day.
Proven by Research
Animal Research and Testing Powers Safe, Life-Changing Medical Devices
From everyday essentials like contact lenses to cutting-edge innovations such as brain-computer interfaces, most medical devices we rely on today were made possible through vital animal research and FDA-mandated safety testing. These studies play a critical role in ensuring devices are safe, effective, and continually advancing to meet the needs of modern medicine.
Tested for Safety, Backed by Science
Animal Models Behind Today’s Most Trusted Medical Devices
| Rank | Medical Device | Primary Models | Overview |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1. | Insulin pump | Dogs, cows, mice, rats, humans | Oskar Minkowski and Josef von Mering realized that the absence of the pancreas gland in dogs initiates symptoms aligned with diabetes, hinting that the pancreas was the site of insulin production. The extraction of insulin from a dog's pancreas was then used to maintain the life of an extremely diabetic dog, proving that insulin can be used to fight diabetes. The process was refined with the extraction of insulin from the pancreas of cattle, leading to the first injection of insulin in humans in 1922. Implantable continuous insulin infusion pumps and other state-of-the-art insulin-dispensing devices are being explored with mice and rats. |
| 2. | Hearing aid | Barn owls, bats, chinchillas, guinea pigs and pigs, humans | Animal models - particularly barn owls, bats, chinchillas, guinea pigs and pigs - have been used throughout the development and testing of hearing aids. As for modern research, spider silk and certain fly species provide insights into directional microphones that have improved the sound quality of hearing aids. The possibility of reversing hearing loss is being explored with genetically-modified mice. |
| 3. | Cardiac pacemaker | Dogs, pigs, humans | Dogs played a major role in the first measurement of a heart beat. A series of dog studies revealed that when stimulated, the heart can provide an electrical pulse through the body. This discovery prompted the development of a device to stimulate the heart in the 1940s and 1950s. Soon after, clinical cardiac pacing devices were developed. Several prototypes and improvements later, the modern pacemaker came to be. Pigs continue to be a valuable animal model for cardiac pacing research. |
| 4. | Contact lenses | Rabbits, dogs, guinea pigs, nonhuman primates, humans | Because of the nature of contact lenses as medical devices, any new materials for contact lenses must be tested with animals. There have been many studies since 1965 investigating drug delivery through contact lenses for diseases like glaucoma. Animals are also used in studies to determine the long-term health impacts of contact lenses. The most commonly used animal model for contact lens development is the rabbit (64%), followed by the dog (6%), the guinea pig (3%), and the nonhuman primate (3%). |
| 5. | Glucometer | Dogs, mice, rats, pigs, humans | The use of animals in preclinical research and testing of glucometers is significant. The accuracy of the glucometer is essential, so extensive research and testing has been - and continues to be - conducted with mice and rats. Pigs and beagle dogs were instrumental in developing modern implanted continuous monitoring glucometers. Glucometers are also used to acquire field data from wild animals, and the technique has been developed with grey seals. |
| 6. | Prosthetics | Cats, dogs, mini-pigs, nonhuman primates, sheep, humans | Prosthetic limbs have a rich and ancient history, dating back to 3,000 year-old mummies with artificial toes. Feline models have been used to test bone-anchored prosthetics for an array of applications. Retinal (eye) prosthetics have relied heavily on research and testing with mini-pigs and nonhuman primates (monkeys). Since the jump from mechanical testing to human application is too much of a challenge to replace animal models, preclinical testing of prosthetics continues to be done with cats, dogs, mice, mini-pigs, nonhuman primates, pigs, sheep and rats. |
| 7. | Asthma inhaler | Cats, dogs, guinea pigs, horses, mice, nonhuman primates, sheep, rats, humans | Animal studies are critical not only for the assurance of safety of experimental asthma inhalers for human clinical trials, but also for the identification of physiological mechanisms of asthma that allow for more advanced therapeutic treatments. Guinea pigs were particularly helpful in the early days of asthma inhalers in the 1960s. Other animals that present similarities with humans in terms of asthma mechanisms are cats, dogs, horses, mice, nonhuman primates, sheep and rats. |
| 8. | Blood pressure monitor | Dogs, horses, mice, rabbits, rats, humans | The measurement of blood pressure began in the 18th century with Dr. Stephen Hales. Animals have been used to investigate the underlying causes of high blood pressure throughout the development of blood pressure monitors. Key animal models for the development of blood pressure monitors include dogs, horses, mice, rabbits and rats. The American Heart Association acknowledges the usefulness of animal models to advance scientific understanding of high blood pressure. |
| 9. | Pregnancy tests | Frogs, mice, rabbits, sheep, humans | The Aschheim-Zondek test was one of the first models of pregnancy tests. It involved placing a urine sample in a premature mouse. If pregnancy hormones were present, the mouse would go into heat. Later pregnancy tests used rabbits, then frogs (specifically the African Clawed Frog). Finally, modified sheep blood cells were found to react to urine samples of pregnant women, eliminating the need for live animals, though maintaining a crucial link to animal research. |
| 10. | Thermometers | Goats, horses, pigs, sheep, humans | The first attempts at measuring the human body temperature were made in the 1500s, when Giovanni Borelli tried to measure the body temperature of the inner organs of various animal models. Later on, George Martine also used various animal models to understand body heat. His findings led to breakthroughs in malaria research. Throughout the development of the modern thermometer, the internal temperature of animals has been used as a reference point to confirm the accuracy and effectiveness of new thermometer models. Animal models include goats, horses, pigs and sheep. |
| 11. | Stents | Pigs, dogs, rabbits, sheep, humans | Stents in the arteries near the heart have massively improved treatment of coronary artery disease. Animals are used to pinpoint the benefits and limitations of new types of stents, with pigs being the primary model for preclinical research and research to better understand the body's response to stents. Other animal models used in the development of stents include dogs, rabbits and sheep. |
| 12. | Defibrillators | Dogs, chicken, goats, monkeys, sheep, humans | In 1842, research with dogs led to the discovery of the concept of ventricular fibrillation. Seven years later, scientists discovered that ventricular fibrillation could be induced in dogs via electric shock and that a dog's unusual heart rhythm could be restored with an electric current. Continued research with dogs, chicken, goats, monkeys and sheep eventually led to the development of the defibrillator. |
| 13. | Coronary angioplasty balloons | Dogs, pigs, humans | Dogs and pigs have played a pivotal role in the development of coronary angioplasty balloons: devices used to widen the arteries surrounding the heart to prevent blockages. Studies in dogs, pigs and other animals are necessary to determine how much pressure a coronary angioplasty balloon can withstand, how long it can safely and effectively last in the body, and other measures of safety and efficacy. |
| 14. | Cochlear implants | Chinchillas, cats, humans | Graeme Clark spearheaded a team of researchers in 1967 to test the tolerability of ears to cochlear implants. The majority of animals they used were cats. Chinchillas, which have similarities in sound sensitivity and ear anatomy to humans, are used in cochlear implant research to confirm the insertion surgery of the implant will not result in residual hearing loss. |
| 15. | Mechanical ventilation | Pigs, mice, sheep, rats, humans | Although ventilators have saved many lives for patients struggling to breathe on their own, they are known to cause ventilator induced lung injuries. Pigs, mice, rats and sheep have helped investigate the risk of injury from mechanical ventilators. These same animal models have also been critical in the discovery of preventive and therapeutic treatments for ventilator-induced lung injuries, and for the development of new ventilators to help COVID-19 patients. |
| 16. | Catheters | Mice, pigs, rabbits, rats, humans | Indwelling catheters are effective and critical tools for patients who are able to empty their bladder on their own. However, they present some negative side effects, including urinary tract infections, bladder spams, and leakage around the catheter. Animal models - mainly pigs, rabbits, mice and rats - are important to assess the biocompatibility and risk of side effects of different catheter models. |
| 17. | Artificial joints | Dogs, cows, goats, mice, sheep, rabbits, rats, humans | The first ever knee and hip replacements took place in the late 19th century, when Themistocles Gluck worked with animal models before moving to humans. In order to avoid joint failure and to further advance the capabilities of artificial joints, pre-clinical research with animals must be conducted. For instance, the use of new raw materials, like graphene, to produce artificial joints, was first deemed safe with mice. |
| 18. | Cranioplasty | Dogs, frogs, mice, rabbits, humans | The very first cranioplasty procedure was performed by Surgeon Van Meekeren, who grafted part of the cranium of a dog that was deceased into a human skull. Cranioplasty milestones such as better cranioplasty sutures, improved signaling mechanisms, and more, have been accomplished thanks to animal models to include frogs, mice and rabbits. |
| 19. | Spinal discs | Dogs, horses, goats, mice, nonhuman primates, rabbits, rats, humans | Animal models, most commonly rodents, have played a significant role in the development of artificial spinal discs as well as disc replacement procedures. Therapies such as mesenchymal stem cell administration for regrowth of connective spinal tissue have moved from preclinical testing to the clinic thanks to animal research. Other than rodents, common preclinical animal models in spinal disc replacement research are dogs, horses, goats, nonhuman primates and rabbits. |
| 20. | Implantable drug delivery systems | Mice, nonhuman primates, pigs, rabbits, rats, sheep, humans | Animal studies are necessary to develop implantable drug delivery systems. Examples include preclinical research and testing with animals, primarily mice, nonhuman primates, pigs, rabbits, rats and sheep, to determine the best way to administer localized breast cancer drug release treatments, and preclinical research and testing to determine the safety of drug-coated implants. |
| 21. | Oxygen therapy | Cats, dogs, pigs, rabbits, rats, humans | British clergyman Henshaw was the first known person to use pressurized oxygen for therapeutic use in 1662. Two centuries later, in the 19th century, scientists and physicians began studying different ways to administer oxygen therapeutically for a number of diseases. Oxygen therapy can be administered in two ways: in a hyperbaric manner (with pressurized air in a chamber) or a sub-cutaneous manner (under the skin). Hyperbaric oxygen therapy was developed largely thanks to cats, dogs, pigs and rats. Sub-cutaneous oxygen therapy was developed thanks to largely dogs and rabbits. |
| 22. | Deep brain stimulation systems | Nonhuman primates, mice, rabbits, rats, humans | In 1952 Jose Delgado was one of the first scientists to experiment with deep brain stimulation, implanting electrodes in humans and animals. Animals were also critical in identifying the maximum intensity of the electric charge. Nonhuman primates (largely rhesus macaque monkeys), cats, mice, rats and rabbits have been instrumental in the development of DBS. Rats are being used to develop conductive hydrogels for the implantable electrodes to exert minimal damage on the skin or cranial tissue during DBS treatment. |
| 23. | Computer-brain interfaces | Cats, dogs, mice, rats, nonhuman primates, pigs, sheep, humans | Computer-brain interfaces are ways for the brain to interact with technology like a prosthetic limb. It gives a chance to those living with a prosthetic and those living with a neurodegenerative disease to function more normally. Animal models, generally nonhuman primates, but also to include cats, dogs, mice, rats, pigs and sheep, are used toward these breakthroughs in cognitive science. One recent study with two macaque monkeys successfully optimized an algorithm over seven days to direct the macaque monkeys' brain signals into control directives that allowed them to control their prosthetics. |
| 24. | Artificial womb | Lambs, pigs, humans | Artificial wombs are being developed and tested primarily with baby lambs and piglets to determine how they might work for human preemie babies. The EXTEND system developed at Children's Hospital in Philadelphia is the closest to being ready for human preemie testing, pending FDA approval. |
| 25. | Da Vinci robot for surgery | Cows, pigs, sheep, humans | The Da Vinci robotic surgery system allows a surgeon to perform an operation from a distance away while controlling a robotic device. Cows, pigs and sheep have been used to refine the capabilities of the Da Vinci robotic surgery system and it is FDA approved. |
References
| Rank | Medical Device | Source |
|---|---|---|
| 1. | Insulin Pump | American Diabetes Association. The history of a wonderful thing we call insulin. (2019, July 1). https://diabetes.org/blog/history-wonderful-thing-we-call-insulin King AJ. The use of animal models in diabetes research. Br J Pharmacol. 2012 Jun;166(3):877-94. doi:10.1111.j.1476-5381.2012.01911.x. PMID:22352879; PMCID:PMC3417415 Dollemore D. Experimental treatment subdues Type 1 diabetes in laboratory mice. The University of Utah news. https://attheu.utah.edu/facultystaff/experimental-treatment-subdues-type-1-diabetes-in-laboratory-mice/ Jensen VFH, Molck AM, Martensson M, Aagard-Strid M, Chapman M, Lykkesfeldt J and Bruck-Bogh I. Assessment of implantable infusion pumps for continuous infusion of human insulin in rats: potential for group housing. Laboratory Animals. 2017;51(3):273-283. doi:10.1177/0023677216660740 |
| 2. | Hearing Aid | Center, O.E.N. & T. (2022, March 15). How are animals helping scientists improve hearing aids? Oregon Ear, Nose & Throat Center Blog. https://oregonent.com/how-are-animals-helping-scientists-improve-hearing-aids/ King's College London (2023, August 10). Scientists reverse hearing loss in mice. ScienceDaily. Retrieved January 12, 2024 from https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2023/08/230810110338.htm Sonova.com – Exciting animals. Available online at https://www.sonova.com/en/story/innovation/exciting-animals Dumon T, Zennaro O, Aran JM, Bebear JP. Piezoelectric middle ear implant hearing aid experimental model in guinea pig. IEE Xplore®. 1992 15th Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society. Available online at https://ieeeplore.ieee.org/document/5761808. |
| 3. | Cardiac pacemaker | Aquilina, O. A brief history of cardiac pacing. Images Paediatr. Cardiol. 2006 Apr;8(2):17-81. PMID:22368662; PMCID:PMC3232561 Bowman TA, Hughes HC. Swine as an in vivo model for electrophysiologic evaluation of cardiac pacing parameters. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol. 1984 Mar;7(2):187-94. doi:10.1111/j.1540-8159.1984.tb04885.x. PMID: 6200843 Laughner JI, Marrus SB, Zellmer ER, Weinheimer CJ, MacEwan MR, Cui SX, Nerbonne JM, Efimov IR. A fully implantable pacemaker for the mouse: from battery to wireless power. PLoS One. 2013 Oct 23;8(10):e76291. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0076291. PMID:24194832; PMCID:PMC3806780 |
| 4. | Contact lenses | Sweeney DF, Jalbert I, Covey M, Sankaridurg PR, Vajdic C, Holden BA, Sharma S, Ramachandran L, Willcox MD, Rao GN. Clinical characterization of corneal infiltrative events observed with soft contact lens wear. Cornea. 2003 Jul;22(5):435-42. doi: 10.1097/00003226-200307000-00009. PMID:12827049. Wuchte LD, DiPasquale SA, Byrne ME. In vivo drug delivery via contact lenses: The current state of the field from origins to present. J Drug Deliv Sci Technol. 2021 Jun;63:102413. doi:10/1016/j.jddst.2021.102413. EPub 2021 Feb. 18. PMID:34122626. PMCID:PMC8192067 |
| 5. | Glucometer | Bennett KA, Turner LM, Millward S, Moss SEW, Hall AJ. Obtaining accurate glucose measurements from wild animals under field conditions: comparing a hand held glucometer with a standard laboratory technique in grey seals. Conserv Physiol. 2017 Feb. 27;5(1):cox013.doi:10.1093/conphys/cov013. PMID:28413683; PMCID:PMC5386009. Kim S, Malik J, Mo Seo J, Min Cho Y, and Bien F. Subcutaneously Implantable Glucose Sensor that Lasts for a Year in Pigs. Sci Rep 12, 17395 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-22128-w. Maugh, T., UC San Diego Researchers Develop Implantable Glucose Sensor that Lasts for a Year in Pigs. Los Angeles Times. July 30, 2010. Available online at https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2010-jul-30-la-heb-glucose-sensor-20100730-story.html Bennett, S. 2015, July 6. Veterinary research could improve accuracy of blood glucose test. Bioanalysis Zone. https://www.bioanalysis-zone.com/veterinary-research-could-improve-accuracy-of-blood-glucose-test/ Togashi M, Shirakawa J, Okuyama T et. al. Evaluation of the appropriateness of using glucometers for measuring the blood glucose levels in mice. Sci. Rep. 6, 25465; doi: 10.1038/srep25465 (2016). |
| 6. | Prosthetics | Bertschinger DR, Beknazar E, Simonutti M, Safran AB, Sahel JA, Rosolen SG, Picaud S, Salzmann J. A review of in vivo animal studies in retinal prosthesis research. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophtalmol. 2008 Nov;246(11):1505-17. doi:10.1007/s00417-008-0891-7. Epub 2008 Aug. 16. PMID:18709385. Cheng D, Borton D, and Greenberg P. Retinal Prostheses – Now and in the Future. Review of Ophtalmology, Published 9 June 2017. Available online at https://www.reviewofophthalmology.com/article/retinal-prostheses-now-and-in-the-future Kang NV, Pendegrass C, Marks L, Blunn G. Osseocutaneous integration of an intraosseous transcutaenous amputation prosthesis implant used for reconstruction of a transhumeral amputee: case report. J. Hand Surg Am. 2010 Jul;35(7):1130-4. doi:10.1016/j.jhsa.2010.03.037. EPub 2010 Jun 11. PMID:20541327. MacDonald, J. (2018). A brief history of prosthetic limbs. JSTOR Daily. Available online at https://daily.jstor.org/a-brief-history-of-prosthetic-limbs/ Schleimer K, Jalaie H, Afify M, Woitok A, Barbati M, Hoeft K, Jacobs M, Tolba R and Streitz J. Sheep models for evaluation of novel patch and prosthesis material in vascular surgery: tips and tricks to avoid possible pitfalls. Acta Vet Scand 60, 42 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13028-018-0397-1 Swindle, MM, Makin A, Herron AJ, Clubb FJ, Frazier KS. Swine as Models in Biomedical Research and Toxicology Testing. Australian Journal of Paramedicine. 2012:49(2):1-8.doi:10.33151/ajp16.690 |
| 7. | Asthma inhaler | AnimalResearch.info Medical Advances: Asthma. Available online at https://www.animalresearch.info/en/medical-advances/diseases-research/asthma/ Aun MV, Bonamichi-Santos R, Arantes-Costa FM, Kalil J, Giavina-Bianchi P. Animal models of asthma: utility and limitations. J. Asthma Allergy. 2017 Nov 7; 10:293-301. doi:10.2147/JAA.S121092. PMID:29158683; PMCID:PMC5683778. Shin YS, Takeda K, Gelfand EW. Understanding asthma using animal models. Allergy Asthma Immunol Res. 2009 Oct; 1(1):10-08. doi:10.4168/aair.2009.1.1.10. Epub 2009 Sep. 25. PMID:20224665; PMCID:PMC2831565 Woodrow JS, Sheats MK, Cooper B, Bayless R. Asthma: The Use of Animal Models and their Translational Utility. Cells. 2023 Apr 5;12(7):1091. doi:10.3390/cells12071091. PMID:37048164; PMCID:PMC100093022. |
| 8. | Blood pressure monitor | Togashi M, Shirakawa J, Okuyama T et. al. Evaluation of the appropriateness of using glucometers for measuring the blood glucose levels in mice. Sci. Rep. 6, 25465; doi: 10.1038/srep25465 (2016). History of the Sphygmomanometer, American Diagnostic Corporation. Available online at https://www.adctoday.com/learning-center/about-sphygmomanometers/history-sphygmomanometer Kotchen T. Historical Trends and Milestones in Hypertension Research. 22 Aug. 2011. https://doi.org/10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.111.177766Hypertension. 2011;58:522-538. Kumar R, Dubey PK, Zafer A, Kumar A, Yadav S. Past, present and future of blood pressure measuring instruments and their calibration. Measurement, Volume 172, 2021,108845, ISSN 0263-2241, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.measurement.2020.108845. Lerman LO, Kurtz TW, Touyz RM, Ellison DH, Chade A., Crowley SD, Mattson DL, Mullins JJ, Osborn JL, Eirin A, Reckelhoff JF, Iadecola C, and Coffman TM (2019). Animal Models of Hypertension: A scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Hypertension, 73(6). https://doi.org/10.1161/hyp.0000000000000090. Lewis O. Stephen Hales and the measurement of blood pressure. J Hum Hypertens. 1994 Dec;8(12):865-71. PMID:7884783. Pickering TG, Hall JE, Appel LJ, Falkner BE, Graves J, Hill MN, Jones DW, Kurtz T, Sheps SG, Roccella EJ. Recommendations for blood pressure measurement in humans and experimental animals: part 1: blood pressure measurement in humans: a statement for professionals from the Subcommittee of Professional and Public Education of the American Heart Association Council on High Blood Pressure Research. Circulation. 2005 Feb 8;111(5):697-716. doi:10.1161/01.CIR.0000154900.76284.F6. PMID:15699287. |
| 9. | Pregnancy tests | Kelley K. The Ashheim-Zondek Test for Pregnancy. Embryo Project Encyclopedia. 2010, September 12. https://embryo.asu.edu/pages/aschheim-zondek-test-pregnancy Meredith J, Scrace R. Animal research and pregnancy testing: a history. Understanding Animal Research, April 15, 2020. Available online at: https://www.understandinganimalresearch.org.uk/news/animal-research-and-pregnancy-testing-a-history Olszynko-Gryn J. The demand for pregnancy testing: the Aschheim-Zondek reaction diagnostic versatility, and laboratory services in 1930s Britain. Stud Hist Philos Biomed Sci. 2014 Sep;47 Pt B:233-47. doi:10.1016/j.shpsc.2013.12.002. Epub 2014 Jan 1. PMID:24388014; PMCID: PMC4275600. Tyssowski K. (2018, August 31). Pee is for Pregnant: The history and science of urine-based pregnancy tests. Science in the News. Available online at https://sitn.hms.harvard.edu/flash/2018/pee-pregnant-history-science-urine-based-pregnancy-tests/ |
| 10. | Thermometers | Grodzinsky E, Sund Levander M. History of the Thermometer. Understanding Fever and Body Temperature. 2019 Aug 23:23-35. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-21886-73. PMCID: PMC7120475. Jaekl, P. (2021, June 1). Melting butter, poisonous mushrooms and the strange history of the invention of the thermometer. TIME Magazine. https://time.com/6053214/thermometer-history/ |
| 11. | Stents | Iqbal J, Chamberlain J, Francis SE, Gunn J. Role of Animal Models in Coronary Stenting. Ann Biomed Eng. 2016 Feb;44(2):453-65. doi:10.1007/s10439-015-1414-4. Epub 2015 Aug 11. PMID:26259974. Iqbal J, Gunn J, Serruys P. Coronary stents: historical development, current status and future directions. British Medical Bulletin, Volume 106, Issue 1, June 2013, Pages 193-211, https://doi.org/10.1093/bmb/ldt009. |
| 12. | Defibrillators | Page RL. The AED in resuscitation: it's not just about the shock. Trans Am Clin Climatol Assoc. 2011; 122:347-55. PMID:21686237; PMCID:PMC3116356. Akselrod H, Kroll MW, Orlov MV (2009). History of Defibrillation. In: Efimov IR, Kroll MW, Tchou PJ (eds) Cardiac Bioelectric Therapy. Spring, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-79403-7_2. |
| 13. | Coronary angioplasty balloons | Buller, CE, Culp SC, Sketch MH Jr, Phillips HR, Virmani R, Stacks RS. Thermal-perfusion balloon coronary angioplasty: in vivo evaluation. Am Heart J. 1993 Jan;125(1):226-33. doi: 10.1016/0002-8703(93)90079-o. PMID:8417522. Granada, JF, Tellez A, Baumbach WR, Bingham B, Keng YF, Wessler J, Conditt G, McGregor J, Stone G, Kaluza GL, and Leon MB. (2016). In vivo delivery and long-term tissue retention of nano-encapsulated sirolimus using a novel porous balloon angioplasty system. EuroIntervention, 12(6), 740-747. https://doi.org/10.4244/eijy15m10_01. Steele PM, Chesebro JH, Stanson AW, Holmes DR, Dewanjee MK, Badimon L, and Fuster V. (1985). Balloon angioplasty: natural history of the pathophysiological response to injury in a pig model. Circulation Research, 57(1), 105-112. https://doi.org/10.1161/01.res.57.1.105 Zollikofer CL, Salomonowitz E, Bruhlmann WF, Castaneda-Zuniga WR, Amplantz. Expansion, deformation and bursting characteristics of frequently used balloon dilatation catheters. In vivo studies on canine vessels (2). Rofo. 1986 Feb;144(2);189-95. German. doi: 10.1055/s-2008-1048770. PMID: 3006171. Koch F, Pieper R, Fischer-Tenhagen C. Body temperature measurement in pigs: Are infrared thermometers a non-invasive alternative? Tierarztl Prax Ausg G Grosstiere Nutztiere. 2023 Apr;51(2):84-92. German. doi: 10.1055/a-2046-5061. Epub 2023 May 25. PMID: 37230143; PMCID: PMC10212648. Goodwin S. Comparison of Body Temperatures of Goats, Horses, and Sheep Measured With a Tympanic Infrared Thermometer, an Implantable Microchip Transponder, and a Rectal Thermometer. Contemp Top Lab Anim Sci. 1998 May;37(3):51-55. PMID: 12456161. |
| 14. | Cochlear implants | Castle N, Liang J, Smith M, Petersen B, Matson C, Eldridge T, Zhang K, Lee CH, Liu Y, Dai C. Finite Element Modeling of Residual Hearing after Cochlear Implant Surgery in Chinchillas. Bioengineering (Basel). 2023 Apr 27;10(5):539. doi:10.3390/bioengineering10050539. PMID:37237608; PMCID:PMC10215081. Hainarosie M, Zaina V, Hainarosie R. The evolution of cochlear implant technology and its clicnial relevance. J Med Life. 2014;7 Spec No. 2(Spec Iss 2):1-4. PMID:25870662; PMCID: PMC4391344. Lyudovyk, S., From Chinchillas to Humans: Decoding Hearing Loss. CuriousScienceWriters.org. May 31, 2022. Available online at https://curioussciencewriters.org/articles/2022/05/31/from-chinchillas-to-humans-decoding-hearing-loss/ Trevino M, Lobarinas E, Maulden AC, Heinz MG. The chinchilla animal model for hearing science and noise-induced hearing loss. J Acoust Soc Am. 2019 Nov;146(5):3710. doi:10.1121/1.5132950. PMID:31795699; PMC6881193. Williams, C. Hearing restoration: Graeme Clark, Ingeborg Hochmair, and Blake Wilson receive the 2013 Lasker-DeBakey Clinical Medical Research Award. J Clin Invest. 2013;123(10):4102-4106. https://doi.org/10.1172/HCI72707. |
| 15. | Mechanical ventilation | Conduct Science. (n.d.) Animal Ventilation. Retrieved May 19, 2024 from https://conductscience.com/animal-lab/anesthesia-systems/animal-ventilation/ Rocco PRM, Marini JJ. What have we learned from animal models of ventilator-induced lung injury? Intensive Care Med. 2020 Dec;46(12):2377-2380. doi:10.1007/s00134-020-06143-x. Epub 2020 Jun 4. PMID:32500178; PMCID: PMC7270159. Salas, MG (2020, March 25). Primera prueba superada: el respirador impreso en 3D funciona en cerdos [First test passed: the 3D printed respirator works on pigs.] La Nueva Espana. Retrieved May 19, 2024, from https://www.lne.es/sociedad/2020/03/25/primera-prueba-superada-respirador-impreso-14321018.html University of Minnesota. (n.d.) Medical Devices Center Creates New Ventilator. University of Minnesota College of Science and Engineering. Retrieved May 19, 2024, from https://cse.umn.edu/me/news/medical-devices-center-creates-new-ventilator |
| 16. | Catheters | Feneley RC, Hopley IB, Well PN. Urinary catheters: history, current status, adverse events and research agenda. J Med Eng Technol. 2015;39(8):459-70. doi:10.3109/03091902.2015.1085600. Epub 2015 Sep 18. Erratum in: J Med Eng Technol. 2016;40(2);59. PMID:26383168; PMCID:PMC4673556 Nicke JC, Olson ME, Costerton JW. In vivo coefficient of kinetic friction: study of urinary catheter biocompatibility. Urology. 1987 May;29(5):501-3. doi:10.1016/0090-4295(87)90037-9. PMID:3576867 Staerk K, Schroder B, Jensen LK, Petersen T, Andersen TE, Nielsen LF. Catheter-associated bladder mucosal trauma during intermittent voiding: An experimental study in pigs. BJUI Compass. 2024;5(2):217-223. https://doi.org/10.1002/bco2.295 Morck DW, Olson ME, Read RR, Buret AG, Ceri H, Chapter 53 - The Rabbit Model of Catheter-Associated Urinary Tract Infection, Editor(s): Oto Zak, Merle A. Sande, Handbook of Animal Models of Infection, Academic Press, 1999, Pages 453-462, ISBN 9780127753904, https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-012775390-4/50192-5. St. Clair MB, Sowers AL, Davis JA, Rhodes LL. Urinary Bladder Catheterization of Female Mice and Rats. Contemp Top Anim Sci. 1999 May;38(3):78-79. PMID: 12086430. |
| 17. | Artificial joints | Chang, TK, Lu YC, Yeh ST, Lin TC, Huang CH. In vitro and in vivo biological responses to graphene and graphene oxide: A murine calvarial animal study. Int J Nanomedicine. 2020 Jan 30;15:647-659. doi:10.2147/IJN.S231885. PMID:32099357; PMCID:PMC6996553. Chin G, Dave DR and Campbell ST. (2019). What have animals taught us about total joint arthroplasty? A review of the literature. Acta Orthopaedica Belgica, 85(3), 261-268. Overgaard S, Grupp TM, Nelissen RG, Cristofoloni L, Lubbeke A, Jager M, Fink M, Rusch S, Achakri H, Benazzo F, Bergadano D, Duda GN, Kaddick C, Jansson V and Gunther K. (2023). Introduction to innovations in joint arthroplastyL Recommendations from the ‘EFORT implant and patient safety initiative.’ EFORT Open Reviews, 8(7),509-521. Retrieved Apr 21, 2024, from https://doi.org/10.1530/EOR-23-0072. |
| 18. | Cranioplasty | Alkaibary A, Alharbi A, Alnefaie N, Oqalaa Almubarak A, Alraidi A, and Khairy S. (2020). Cranioplasty: A comprehensive review of the history, materials, surgical aspects, and complications. World Neurosurgery, 139, 445-452. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.wneu.2020.04.211 Bonda DJ, Manjila S, Selman WR, Dean D. The Recent Revolution in the Design and Manufacture of Cranial Implants: Modern Advancements and Future Directions. Neurosurgery. 2015 Nov;77(5):814-24; discussion 824. doi:10.1227/NEU.0000000000000899. PMID:26171578; PMCID:PMC4615389. Grova M, Lo DD, Montoro D, Hyun JS, Chung MT, Wan DC, Longaker MT. Models of cranial suture biology. J Craniofac Surg. 2012 Nov;23(7 Suppl 1):1954-8. doi:10.1097/SCS.0b013e318258ba53. PMID:23154351; PMCID:PMC4126807 |
| 19. | Spinal discs | Daly C, Ghosh P, Jenkin G, Oehme D, Goldschlager T. A Review of Animal Models of Intervertebral Disc Degeneration: Pathophysiology, Regeneration, and Translation to the Clinic. Biomed Res Int. 2016;2016:5952165. doi:10.1155/2016/6962165.Epub 2016 May 22. PMID:27314030; PMCID:PMC4893450. Poletto DL, Crowley JD, Tanglay O, Walsh WR, Pelletier MH. Preclinical in vivo animal models of invertebral disc degeneration. Part 1: A systematic review. JOR Spine. 2022 Dec 20;6(1):e1234. doi:10.1002/jps2.1234. PMID:36994459; PMCID:PMC10041387. |
| 20. | Implantable drug delivery systems | Eluu SC, Obayemi JD, Salifu AA, Yiporo D, Oko AO, Aina T, Oparah JC, Ezeala CC, Etinosa O, Ugwu CM, Esimone CO, Soboyejo WO. In vivo studies of targeted and localized cancer drug release from microporous poly-di-methyl-silxane (PDMS) devices for the treatment of triple negative breast cancer. Sci Rep 14, 31 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-50656-6. Magill R, Demartis S, Gavini E, Permana AD, Thakur RRS, Adrianto MF, Waite D, Glover K, Picco CJ, Korelidou A, Detamornrat U, Vora LK, Li L, Anjani QK, Donnelly RF, Domingues-Robles J, Larraneta E (2023). Solid implantable devices for sustained drug delivery. Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews, 199, 114950. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addr.2023.114950. Zhou H, Hernandez C, Gross M, Gawlik A, Exner AA. Biomedical Imaging in Implantable Drug Delivery Systems. Curr Drug Targets. 2015;16(6):672-82. doi:10.2174/1389450115666141122211920. PMID:25418857; PMCID:PMC4441594. |
| 21. | Oxygen therapy | Edwards, ML (2010), Hyperbaric oxygen therapy. Part 1: history and principles. Journal of Veterinary Emergency and Critical Care, 20:284-288. https://doi.org/10.1111.j.1476-4431.2010.00535.x. Crowe DT Jr. Hyperbaric oxygen therapy: the history. www.DVM360.com, March 13, 2009. Available online at https://www.dvm360.com/view/hyperbaric-oxygen-therapy-history. Featherstone PJ, Ball CM. Subcutaneous oxygen therapy. Anaesthesia and Intensive Care. 2022;50(6):417-420. doi:10.1177/0310057X221126323. |
| 22. | Deep brain stimulation systems | Frey J, Cagle J, Johnson KA, Wong JK, Hilliard JD, Butson CR, Okun MS, de Hemptinne C. Past, Present and Future of Deep Brain Stimulation: Hardware, Software, Imaging, Physiology and Novel Approaches. Front. Neurol. 2022 Mar 9;13:825178. doi:10.3389/fneur.2022.825178. PMID:35356461; PMCID:PMC8959612. Hyakumura T, Aregueta-Robles U, Duan W, Villalobos J, Adams WK, Poole-Warren L and Fallon JB (2021). Improving deep brain stimulation electrode performance in vivo through use of conductive hydrogel coatings. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 15. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2021.761525. Graber KD, Fisher RS. Deep Brain Stimulation for Epilepsy: Animal Models. In: Noebels JL, Avoli M, Rogawski MA, Delgado-Escueta A, Olsen R, editors. Jasper's Basic Mechanisms of the Epilepsies [Internet]. 4th edition. Bethesda (MD): National Center for Biotechnology Information (US); 2012. Fleischer M, Endres H, Sendter M, Volkmann J. Development of a Fully Implantable Stimulator for Deep Brain Stimulation in Mice. Frontiers of Neuroscience, Vol. 14, 202. doi: 10.3389/fnins.2020.00726. Jessen L, Bailey R. “Deep Brain Stimulation Offers Parkinson's Patients with New Hope.” Available online at www.fbresearch.org/deep-brain-stimulation-offers-parkinson-s-patients-new-hope. |
| 23. | Computer-brain interfaces | Aman M, Bergmeister KD, Festin C, Sporer ME, Russold MF, Gstoettner C, Podesser BK, Gail A, Farina D, Cederna P, Aszmann OC. Experimental Testing of Bionic Peripheral Nerve and Muscle Interfaces: Animal Model Considerations. Front Neurosci. 2020 Jan 30; 13:1442. doi:10.3389/fnins.2019.01442. PMID:32116485; PMCID:PMC7025572. Willsey MS, Nason-Tomaszewski SR, Ensel SR, Temmar H, Mender M, Costello J, Patil P & Chestek C. Real-time brain-machine interface in nonhuman primates achieves high velocity prosthetic finger movements using a shallow feedforward neural network decoder. Nat Commun 13, 6899 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-022-34452-w. |
| 24. | Artificial womb | Willyard C. (2023, September 29). Everything you need to know about artificial wombs. MIT Technology Review. Retried May 19, 2024, from https://www.technologyreview.com/2023/09/29/1080538/everything-you-need-to-know-about-artificial-wombs |
| 25. | Da Vinci Robot surgery system | George EI, Brand TC, LaPorta A, Marescaux J, Satava RM. Origins of Robotic Surgery: From Skepticism to Standard of Care. JSLS. 2018 Oct-Dec;22(4):e2018.00039. doi:10.4293/JSLS.2018.00039. PMID:30524184; PMCID:PMC6261744. Wei B. and Cerfolio RJ. (2019). Surgical approaches to remove the esophagus. Shackelford's Surgery of the Alimentary Tract, 2 Volume Set, 424-430. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-323-40232-3.00186-2. Adballah, Mourad & Espinel, Yamid & Calvet, Lilian & Pereira, Bruno & Le Roy, Bertrand & Bartoli, Adrien & Buc, Emmanuel. (2022). Augmented reality in laparoscopic liver resection evaluated on an ex-vivo animal model with pseudo-tumours. Surgical Endoscopy. 36. 10.1007/s00464-021-08798-z. |
